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What Confucius taught
Highest are those who are born wise.
Next are those who become wise by learning.
After them come those who have to work hard in order to acquire learning.
Finally, to the lowest class of the common people belong those who work
hard without ever managing to learn.
Devote yourself earnestly to the
duties due to people, and respect spiritual beings but keep them at a
distance;
this may be called wisdom....
The good person first considers what is difficult and only then thinks of
success.
Such a person may be called good.
The wise person delights in water;
the good person delights in mountains.
For the wise are active, and the good are tranquil.
The wise enjoy happiness, and the good enjoy long life.
Be sincere and true to your word, serious
and careful in your actions;
and you will get along even among barbarians.
But if you are not sincere and untrustworthy in your speech, frivolous and
careless in your actions,
how will you get along even among your own neighbors?
When standing, see these principles in front of you;
in your carriage see them on the yoke. Then you may be sure to get
along.
When in office, do your duty;
When not in office, stay out of sight.
Not the man
who was ready to 'attack a tiger bare-handed or
swim across a river' not caring whether he lived or died,
but I should take
someone who approaches difficulties with due
caution, who likes to plan precisely and carry it out.
Lead
the people by governmental measures
and
keep order by laws and punishments, and they will try to avoid them, and
will lose all self-respect.
Lead them by virtue
and
keep order by the rules of propriety, and they will keep their
self-respect and set themselves right.
Better people never compete.
You will say that in archery they do so.
But even then they bow and make way for one another when they are going
up to the archery-ground,
when they are coming down and at the subsequent drinking bout.
Thus even when competing, they still remain better people.
When a man may be spoken with, not to speak
to him is to waste a man.
When a man may not be spoken with, to speak to him is to waste one's
words.
The truly wise never wastes a man;
but on the other hand, he never wastes his words either.
Is it not pleasant to learn continually and
put it into practice?
Is it not delightful to have friends coming from afar?
Is one not a better person if one does not feel hurt even though one is
not recognized?
Confucius was able to
give more than one answer to the same question to help explain it so that his
students could understand. While the master was walking with Fan Chi under the
trees at the Rain Dance altars, he was asked about the same two lines of verse
plus another rhyming line on "repairing shortcomings." Confucius responded,
An excellent question!
"Doing the work first, and considering the reward afterwards;"
is that not piling up virtue?
"Attack the evil that is within yourself,
rather than attacking the evil that is in others;"
is this not repairing shortcomings?
Because of a morning's blind rage
To forget one's own safety
And even endanger one's kith and kind.
Is
that not a case of a divided mind?
We see here again the
possibility of an inner conflict in motivation, with one being clearly a greater
good than the other.
Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge
is?
When you know a thing, to recognize that you know it,
and when you do not know a thing,
to recognize that you do not know it.
That is knowledge.
Love of goodness without love of learning
degenerates into simple-mindedness.
Love of knowledge without love of learning
degenerates into utter lack of principle.
Love of faithfulness without love of learning
degenerates into injurious disregard of consequences.
Love of uprightness without love of learning
degenerates into harshness.
Love of courage without love of learning
degenerates into insubordination.
Love of strong character without love of learning
degenerates into mere recklessness.
First and foremost, be faithful to your
superiors,
keep all promises,
refuse the friendship of all who are not like you;
and if you have made a mistake,
do not be afraid of admitting the fact
and amending your ways.
Confucius pointed out
to his students which kinds of friends are beneficial and which may prove
harmful to one's character.
There are three sorts of friendships
which are advantageous, and three which are injurious.
Friendships with the upright, friendships with the sincere,
and friendships with the well informed are advantageous.
Friendships with those who flatter,
friendships with those of weak principles,
and friendships with those who talk cleverly are injurious.
Likewise it is beneficial for one to be
discriminating in one's choice of pleasures so as not to be harmed by
dissipation.
There are three sorts of pleasures
which are advantageous, and three which are injurious.
Finding pleasure in the discriminating study
of ceremonies and music,
finding pleasure in discussing
the good points in the conduct of others,
and finding pleasure in having many wise friends,
these are advantageous.
But finding pleasure in profligate enjoyments,
finding pleasure in idle gadding about,
and finding pleasure in feasting, these are injurious.
Without goodness a person cannot endure
adversity for long,
nor can one enjoy prosperity for long.
The good person is naturally at ease with goodness.
The wise person cultivates goodness for its advantage.
Confucius described how
people lacking in goodness tend to respond to hardships. "One who is by nature
daring and is suffering from poverty will not long be law-abiding. Indeed, any
people, save those that are truly good, if their sufferings are very great, will
be likely to rebel." Confucius explained logically that goodness includes
courage, but courage does not include goodness; just as virtue includes
eloquence, while eloquence does not include virtue. He said,
One who has accumulated virtue
will certainly also possess eloquence;
but whoever has eloquence does not necessarily possess virtue.
A good person will certainly also possess courage;
but a brave person is not necessarily good.
The virtues are related to each other
in an organized pattern, the goal of the whole being goodness. By analyzing
individual faults and correcting them, one can approach closer to
goodness. "Every person's faults belong to a set. If one looks for
faults, it is only as a means of recognizing goodness."
Confucius encouraged his students to strive toward goodness in the belief
that everyone has the energy to do so. By directing one's energy toward the
good, the negative will have no opportunity to corrupt the person.
I have never seen one who really loves
goodness
or one who really hates wickedness.
One who really loves goodness will not place anything above it.
One who really hates wickedness
will practice goodness in such a way
that wickedness will have no chance to get at one.
Is there anyone who has devoted one's whole strength
to doing good for even as long as a single day?
I have not seen anyone give up such an attempt
because one had not the strength to go on.
Perhaps there is such a case, but I have never seen it.
Above all, goodness was
correct conduct and behavior, whether in private or public life. To express this
Confucius mentioned familiar occasions of special behavior and stated again his
golden rule.
Ran Rong asked about goodness.
Confucius said, "Behave when away from home as though you were in the
presence of an honored guest.
Employ the people as though you were assisting at an important sacrifice.
Do not do to others what you would not like yourself.
Then there will be no feelings of opposition to you, whether it is the
affairs of a state that you are handling or the affairs of a family."
Ultimately goodness can go beyond improving
oneself to actually helping others to improve themselves, but it must
begin within oneself in order for one to know how to help others.
The following conversation shows that Confucius could envision a level
even beyond goodness-that of the divine sage.
Confucius said, "Why only good?
He would without doubt be a divine sage.
Even Yao and Shun fell short of it.
A good person, wishing to establish one's own character, also
establishes the character of others,
and wishing to be successful oneself, also helps others to be successful.
To be able to see others by what is within ourselves may be called
the art of realizing goodness."
Here is a great key! By knowing what is
within ourselves we can know others; knowing ourselves, we can improve
ourselves and then benefit others also.
Before we move on to examine Confucius' concept of the better person, let
us first note that he believed that goodness made a better person, but a
better person was not necessarily good. "It is possible to be a better
person and yet lack goodness, but there has never yet existed a good
person who was not a better person."86 This is a strong statement indicating the
priority of goodness. Although not necessarily all-inclusive of all
positive values in every context in which Confucius used the term,
goodness does, however, appear to be the supreme value and the one most
emphasized in his instruction.
Hear
much and put aside what is doubtful while you speak cautiously of the
rest.
Then
few will blame you.
See much and put aside what seems perilous while you are cautious
in carrying the rest into practice.
Then you will have few occasions for regret.
When one's words give few occasions for blame and one's acts give few
occasions for repentance,
one is on the way to receiving a salary.
Yu! How uncultivated you are!
A better person, in regard to things one does not know, maintains a
cautious reserve.
If language is incorrect, then what is said is not in accordance with the
truth of things.
If language is not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot
be carried on to success.
When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music will
not flourish.
When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will go astray.
When punishments go astray, the people do not know how to move hand or
foot.
Therefore the better person uses only such language as is proper to
speak,
and only speaks of what it would be proper to carry out.
The better person, in what one says, leaves nothing to mere chance.
A young person's duty is to behave
well to one's parents at home and to one's elders abroad,
to be cautious in giving promises and punctual in keeping them, to
overflow in love to all,
and to cultivate the friendship of the good.
If, when all that is done, one has any energy to spare, then let one
study the cultural arts.
Confucius said, "When I enter a country, I
can easily tell its type of culture.
When the people are gentle and kind and simple-hearted, that shows the
teaching of poetry.
When people are broad-minded and acquainted with the past, that
shows the teaching of history.
When the people are generous and show a good disposition, that shows the
teaching of music.
When the people are quiet and thoughtful, and show a sharp power of
observation, that shows the teaching of the philosophy of change.
When the people are humble and respectful and frugal in their habits,
that shows the teaching of propriety.
When the people are cultivated in their speech, ready with expressions
and analogies, that shows the teaching of prose, or Spring and Autumn
Annals.
The danger in the teaching of poetry is that people remain ignorant, or
too simple-hearted.
The danger in the teaching of history is that people may be filled with
incorrect legends and stories of events.
The danger in the teaching of music is that the people grow extravagant.
The danger in the teaching of philosophy is that the people become
crooked.
The danger in the teaching of propriety is that the rituals become too
elaborate.
And the danger in the teaching of Spring and Autumn Annals is that
the people get a sense of the prevailing moral chaos.
When a person is kind and gentle and simple-hearted, and yet not
ignorant, we may be sure that one is deep in the study of poetry.
When a person is broad-minded and acquainted with the past, and yet not
filled with incorrect legends or stories of events, we may be sure
that one is deep in the study of history.
When a person is generous and shows a good disposition and yet not
extravagant in one's personal habits, we may be sure that one is deep in
the study of music.
When a person is quiet and thoughtful and shows a sharp power of
observation, and yet is not crooked, we may be sure that one is deep in
the study of philosophy.
When a person is humble and polite and frugal in one's personal habits
and yet not full of elaborate ceremonies, we may be sure that one is deep
in the study of propriety.
And when a person is cultivated in one's speech, ready with expressions and
analogies and yet is not influenced by the picture of the prevailing
moral chaos,
we may be sure that one is deep in the study of Spring and Autumn
Annals.
Courtesy not bounded by the rules of
propriety becomes tiresome.
Caution not bounded by the rules of propriety becomes timidity, daring
becomes insubordination,
straightforwardness becomes rudeness.
When substance exceeds refinement, one
becomes rude.
When refinement exceeds substance, one becomes pedantic.
When substance and refinement are properly blended,
then one is a better person.
If a minister makes one's own conduct
correct, one will have no difficulty in assisting in government.
But if one cannot rectify oneself, how can one possibly rectify
others?
The one whose wisdom brings one into
power, needs goodness to secure that power.
Else, though one gets it, one will certainly lose it.
The one whose wisdom brings one into power and who has goodness to secure that
power,
if one has not dignity to approach the common people, they will not
respect that one.
The one whose wisdom has brought one into power, who has goodness to
secure that power,
and dignity to approach the common people, if one handles them contrary
to the rules of propriety,
full excellence is not reached.
Have sincere faith and love learning.
Be not afraid to die for pursuing the good Way.
Do not enter a state that pursues dangerous courses, nor stay in a
chaotic one.
When the Way prevails under Heaven, then show yourself;
when it does not prevail, then hide.
When the Way prevails in your own land and you are poor and in a humble
position,
be ashamed of yourself.
When the Way does not prevail in your land and you are wealthy and in an
honorable position,
be ashamed of yourself.
A
country of a thousand war-chariots cannot be administered
unless the ruler attends strictly to business, punctually observes his
promises, is economical in expenditure, loves the people,
and
uses the labor of the peasantry only at the proper times of year.
By "piling up virtue" is meant taking
faithfulness and sincerity as one's guiding principles,
and moving continually to what is right.
Again, to love a things means wanting it to live;
to hate a thing means wanting it to perish.
But suppose one wants something to live and at the same time wants it to
perish;
that is "being in two minds."
The Better Person
The term zhun-zi originally meant the
"son of a ruler" and up to the time of Confucius was used to refer to a
member of the upper class. Confucius may very well have been the
first one to use this term extensively to mean a person of virtue and
principle. Cho-yun Hsu in a history of ancient China wrote,
The Analects
appears to be the earliest work in which
zhun-zi was used to imply high moral standards in a person;
here it denotes the ideal man
whom all men should cultivate their characters to imitate....
Such a man, noble in virtue,
was not necessarily a noble in social status.87
This is an indication of the
tremendous influence Confucius must have had, that in his disciples'
minds at least he could so change the meaning of this socially-laden term
and liberate it from class notions to apply to one of moral principles.
We are using the expression "better person" here as a non-sexist
equivalent although the common translations "superior man" or "gentleman"
are certainly valid.
Many of the same ideas about the good person are used to describe the
better person as well. The following description indicates that the
virtues enable the better person to command the respect of others:
If the better person is not serious,
one will not be respected,
and one's learning will not be on a firm foundation.
That one considers loyalty and faithfulness to be fundamental,
has no friends who are not like that one,
and when one has made mistakes,
one is not afraid of correcting them.88
Although the better person may not have
attained goodness, one acts in such a way so that one might become good.
Sima Niu once asked Confucius what the term "better person" meant. Confucius
said that a better person has no anxiety or fear. Sima Niu then asked
rhetorically if this is what is meant by being a better person. The
master then elaborated, "On looking within oneself one discovers nothing
wrong. What is there for one to be anxious about or fear?"89 Here again
self-examination and self-improvement are the keys. A better person
is not worried by what others think of one, only that one correct
oneself. "A better person is distressed by one's own lack of capacity;
one is never distressed at the failure of others to recognize one's
merits."90 However, eventually one should be able to bring one's good
points to light; if one is never recognized at all, it may be an
indication that one has not accomplished anything worthwhile. "A better
person has reason to be distressed if he ends his days without making a
reputation for himself."91
At three different stages of life, Confucius observed that the better
person must watch out for certain prominent tendencies.
There are three things which a better person
guards against.
In one's youth when one's physical powers are not yet settled,
one guards against lust.
In one's prime when one's physical powers are full of vigor,
one guards against strife.
In old age when one's physical powers are decaying,
one guards against avarice.92
A keen student of human nature,
Confucius was able to admonish his students to be aware of certain
propensities of the life process.
Confucius gave his students an elaborate catalog of the concerns of a
better person as guidelines for their behavior.
The better person has nine cares.
In seeing one is careful to see clearly;
in hearing one is careful to hear distinctly;
in one's looks one is careful to be kind,
in one's manner to be respectful,
in one's words to be sincere,
in one's work to be diligent.
When in doubt one is careful to ask for information;
when angry one has a care for the consequences;
and when one sees a chance for gain,
one thinks carefully whether the pursuits of it would be right.93
These may seem like common sense, but how
often are these basic fundamentals of conduct neglected or ignored? By
delineating them Confucius at least made sure that his students had
been made aware of them. If they were put into practice, how valuable
they could be!
Confucius knew that wise words were not nearly as important as wise or
good deeds. "The better person prefers to be slow in word but diligent in
action."94 In fact the correlation between them was very important to the
better person of Confucius' philosophy. "A better person is ashamed to
let one's words outrun one's deeds."95 Such reminders were probably
very helpful to one's students who must have spent much time in
conversation. A better person should also have the wisdom not to evaluate
a person solely on one's words, nor to reject a good idea because of who
said it. "A better person does not promote a person on account of what
one says; nor does one reject sayings because of what the speaker is."96
To make his points regarding better behavior and conduct, Confucius used
to contrast the better person with the lesser person. In this way the students
could recognize the mediocre or usual behavior and could seek to replace
it with the higher ideal. For example, "The better person sets one's
heart on virtue; the lesser person sets it on comfort. The better
person thinks of sanctions; the lesser person thinks of favors."97
Confucius recommended a more universal perspective. "The better person can see a
question from all sides without bias. The lesser person is biased and can
see a question only from one side."98 The broader view enables one
to be guided by the higher standard of justice. "A better person in
dealing with the world is not for anything or against anything; one
follows what is right."99 The higher viewpoint begins from neutrality in
order to see objectively. What is it which leads most people away from justice?
"The better person understands what is right; the lesser person
understands profit."100
Confucius recommended a positive attitude toward others rather than
negative fault-finding. "The better person calls attention to the good
points in others; one does not call attention to their defects. The
lesser person does just the reverse of this."101 Continually Confucius
emphasized self-improvement and being responsible for oneself rather than
inflicting on others. "The demands that a better person makes are upon
oneself; those that a lesser person makes are upon others."102 The
influence of a better person, however, is not limited by one's social
position. "The better person can influence those who are above one; the lesser
person can only influence those who are below one."103 The better person can
also be distinguished by one's disposition. "The better person is calm
and at ease."104 Some of this difference may be the result of whether
the conscience is clear or not. The inner attitude also carries over into one's
manner. "The better person is dignified but not proud; the lesser person
is proud but not dignified."105
Confucius' better person is an idealist rather than one merely striving
to make ends meet; besides, the economy may go up or down anyway.
A better person, in one's plans, thinks of
the Way;
one does not think how one is going to make a living.
Even farming sometimes has a shortage;
and even learning may incidentally bring a salary.
A better person is concerned with the progress of the Way;
one is not anxious about poverty.106
For Confucius, ethics always came first.
There is human value beyond being able to work, and Confucius would avoid
dehumanization. "The better person is not an implement."107
The better person is a creative and active being who knows how to get
things accomplished in the correct way.
A better person considers justice
to be essential in everything.
One practices it according to the principles of propriety.
One brings it forth in modesty and faithfully completes it.
This is indeed a better person.108
Thus we find the model which Confucius placed
before his students for them to study and learn to emulate. His
curriculum was wholly concerned with the subjective development of the human
being. Although some humanities such as literature, history, and
philosophy were used as aids, the overall emphasis was on the improvement
of each person's character so that one may be a better person. If one
were able to gain a political appointment as the result of one's
education, as several did, this was only an incidental consequence as far
as Confucius was concerned. His purpose was to help people to become
good.
Confucius said, "The Way of the better person
is threefold.
I myself have met with success in none of them.
For one who is really good is never unhappy,
one who is really wise is never perplexed,
and one who is really brave is never afraid."
Zigong said, "Master, that is what you
yourself say."4
Confucius was aware of his own limitations
and that he certainly could do better in each of these aspects. Yet these are
all relative, and as compared to others Confucius exhibited a remarkable joy
even though he was not recognized by many, showed courage and lack of fear in
his travels, and rarely was he confused by any question put to him. He said "I
am not concerned that I have no office; I am only concerned how I may make
myself qualified for one. I am not concerned that I am not recognized; I seek to
be worthy of recognition."5
Even though Confucius was not in office, he was ready at any time to put his
principles into practice if he was given an ethical opportunity. There was a
conversation in which Zigong described a precious jewel and asked whether he
should wrap it up and keep it in a box or see if he could get a good price for
it. Confucius replied, "Sell it! Most certainly sell it! I myself am one who is
waiting for an offer."6
In his travels Confucius put forth great effort to put into practice his ideas,
but he also showed by refusing to cooperate with unjust government that he lived
up to his ethical ideals. He also showed his strength of character in enduring
hardships. The following incident illustrates these points:
Duke Ling of Wei asked Confucius about
military strategy.
Confucius replied, "About the ordering of ritual vessels
I have some knowledge, but I have not studied warfare."
The next day he resumed his travels.
In Chen supplies fell short,
and his followers became so weak
that they could not drag themselves on to their feet.
Zilu came to the master and said indignantly,
"Is it right
that even better people should be reduced to such straits?"
Confucius said, "A better person can
withstand want;
it is only the lesser person who is swept away by it."7
Confucius' definition of a great minister
made clear why he was not often in political service. The following conversation
also indicates his attitude toward two of his disciples' ability in government.
Ji Ziran asked whether Zilu and Ran Qiu
could be called great ministers.
Confucius said, "I thought you were going to ask
some really interesting question; and it is only about Yu and Qiu.
What I call a great minister is one who will only serve his prince
while he can do so without infringement of the Way,
and as soon as this is impossible, resigns.
But in this present case, so far as concerns Yu and Qiu,
I should merely call them stop-gap ministers."
Ziran said, "So you think they would merely
do
what they were told?"
Confucius said, "If called upon to slay their
father or their prince,
even they would refuse."8
In other words, Confucius did not tend to
over-rate his own students nor think they were completely incapable either.
Confucius believed the art of government was a skill of correcting people.
Therefore it was fundamental for the leader to be correct. "To govern means to
rectify. If you lead with correctness, who will dare not to be correct?"9
Therefore, he could not allow himself to participate in a government which was
not correct.
From the evidence we have, Confucius appeared to have acted in harmony with the
Way he preached. He said,
Wealth and honor are what every man desires.
But if they have been obtained in violation of the Way,
they must not be kept.
Poverty and humble station are what every man dislikes.
But if they can be avoided only in violation of the Way,
they must not be avoided.
If a better person departs from goodness,
how can one fulfill that name?
A better person never abandons goodness
even for the lapse of a single meal.
In moments of haste, one acts according to it.
In times of difficulty or confusion, one acts according to it.10
We find Confucius accepting humble
circumstances gladly rather than give up his principles. He said, "With coarse
rice to eat, with water to drink, and with a bent arm for a pillow, there is
still joy. Wealth and honor obtained through injustice are as remote from me as
the clouds that float above."11 Even so, Confucius did not find much joy in
bodily pleasures but rather in loving learning and following the Way.
A better person does not seek
gratification of one's appetite nor comfort in one's lodging.
One is diligent in one's duties and careful in one's speech.
One associates with those who follow the Way
so that one may correct one's own faults.
Such a person may be said to love learning.12
Learning and teaching were the major pursuits
of Confucius' life. His diligence in these activities indicates that he
conscientiously followed what he recommended to others. Ran Qiu once asked
Confucius what should be done next for a population which had multiplied. The
master counted the next step to be to enrich them. Ran Qiu then asked for the
step after that. Confucius said, "Instruct them."13 This was his role, though he
knew that people must have the necessities of life first.
What are the qualifications for a teacher? Confucius felt he must have knowledge
of the past and apply it in the present for the future. "Whoever can make the
old come alive to gain knowledge of what is new is able to teach others."14 Due
to his extensive knowledge of the classics and past history and traditions while
constantly endeavoring to apply these ancient principles to contemporary
situations, Confucius showed himself to meet this requirement as well as anyone
we could name.
Although Confucius was capable of various actions, he was always striving for
the best action possible. For example, he said, "I could try a civil suit as
well as anyone, but it would be better still to bring it about so that there are
no civil suits!"15
As a teacher of the principles of wisdom, Confucius made an easy target for
criticism and satire, especially since he was not in a prestigious position of
the government. In fact a couple of centuries later Confucius was extensively
ridiculed by the Daoist mystic Zhuang-zi, who satirized him as a busy-body
reformer. However, these were caricatures to show how the mystical transcends
social ethics. There is an incident recorded in The Analects of a rustic
who criticized Confucius for not having any specific accomplishments. The master
faced the charge with a sense of humor.
A villager from Daxiang said, "Confucius is
no doubt
a very great man and vastly learned.
But he does not bear out his reputation by any particular thing."
Confucius hearing of it, said to his
disciples,
"What shall I take up? Shall I take up chariot-driving?
Or shall it be archery? I think I will take up driving!"16
Confucius was naturally concerned more with
the development of the whole person than with one particular skill.
In one sense, maybe Confucius never really got the chance to demonstrate his
wisdom and apply his principles. Yet this was not his fault but rather because
of the moral conditions of the times. We can only examine how he faced the
challenges of his life; although he never was successful in government, he did
gain the respect of many disciples. As a final, pragmatic evaluation of his
teaching, then, we must examine the effect he had on his students.
The favorite student of Confucius appears to
have been Yen Hui, for he often singled him out as excelling in
learning and virtue. Confucius said of him,
Incomparable indeed was Hui!
A handful of rice to eat, a gourdful of water to drink,
living in a mean street-
others would have found it unendurably depressing,
but to Hui's cheerfulness it made no difference at all.
Incomparable indeed was Hui!4
Hui was humble and usually quiet, but
Confucius felt that he far surpassed all the others in that most
important quality of goodness. "About Hui, for three months there would
be nothing in his mind contrary to goodness. The others could attain to
this for a day or a month at the most."5 Actually Yen Hui was so
quiet and obedient that some must have thought he was stupid. However,
Confucius defended him from this charge, valuing good deeds more than
clever words, saying,
I can talk to Yen Hui a whole day
without his ever differing from me.
One would think he was stupid.
But if I inquire into his private conduct
when he is not with me,
I find that it fully demonstrates
what I have taught him.
No, Hui is by no means stupid.6
Yen Hui could express himself though, as in
this passage where he marveled at the comprehensiveness and yet
elusiveness of Confucius' teachings.
Yen Hui said with a deep sigh,
"The more I strain my gaze up towards them,
the higher they soar.
The deeper I bore down into them,
the more solid they become.
I see them in front, but suddenly they are behind.
Step by step the master skillfully leads me on.
He has broadened me with culture
and taught me the restraints of propriety.
Even when I want to stop, I cannot.
Just when I feel I have exerted all my ability,
something seems to rise up, standing out sharp and clear.
Even though I long to pursue it,
I can find no way of getting to it at all."7
This statement indicates that Hui could have
been a very subtle and earnest student. Apparently Confucius placed
great faith in his development, but unfortunately the master was to
lose him at a young age. "It was Hui whom I could count on always to
listen attentively to anything I said.... Alas, I saw him go forward, but
had no chance to see where this progress would have led him in the end."8
The untimely death of the disciple whom Confucius had placed above all
the rest was a severe psychological blow to the master. Confucius
expressed his regret to two noteworthy political leaders. When Duke Ai
asked which of the disciples loved learning, he replied,
There was Yen Hui; he really loved to
learn.
He never vented his anger upon the innocent
nor let others suffer for his faults.
Unfortunately the span of life allotted to him
by Heaven was short, and he died.
Now there are none, or at any rate
I have heard of none who are fond of learning.9
Confucius expressed the same idea to
Kan-zi of the Ji family, "There was Yen Hui. He was fond of learning, but
unfortunately his allotted span was a short one, and he died. Now there
is none."10
Confucius never seemed to place a strong faith in any disciple after Yen
Hui died. Even such a prominent disciple as Zigong did not consider
himself in the same class with Yen Hui, as the following conversation
shows:
Confucius said to Zigong,
"Which do you yourself think is better, you or Hui?"
Zigong answered, "I dare not compare
myself with Hui.
For Hui has but to hear one part in ten,
in order to understand the whole ten.
Whereas if I hear one part, I understand no more than two parts."
Confucius said, "Not equal to him-you and I
are not equal to him!"11
Of course Confucius and Zigong were
expressing themselves with humility here. Ziqin, another disciple, once
challenged this modesty of Zigong, saying to him, "This is an
affectation of modesty. Zhong-ni (Confucius) is in no way your superior."
Zigong reprimanded the man and expressed his belief that Confucius could
never be surpassed.
You should be more careful about what you
say.
A better person, though for a single word
may be deemed wise,
for a single word one may be deemed a fool.
It would be as hard to equal our master
as to climb up on a ladder to the sky.
Had our master ever been put in control
of a state or of a great family,
it would have been as is described in the words;
'He raised them, and they stood;
he led them, and they went.
He steadied them with happiness, and they came to him.
He stimulated them, and they moved harmoniously.
His life was glorious, his death lamented.'
How can such a one ever be equalled?12
Confucius did think enough of some of his
disciples to recommend them for public office. When Ji Kang-zi, who
became head of the administration of Lu in 492 BC, asked (perhaps at
a time before that) whether Zilu, Zigong, and Ran Qiu were fit to be
employed as officers in the government, Confucius said that each of them
was capable of holding office.13 However, something which Zilu did must
have led Confucius to throw him out of his house so that the other
disciples no longer respected him. Confucius indicated his deficiency
this way: "The truth about Yu is that he has got as far as the
guest-hall, but has not yet entered the inner rooms."14 In other words,
he understood the formal doctrines but not the inner teachings. Zilu
excelled in courage and daring but was lacking in the more important
qualities of goodness and wisdom. He finally died a heroic and violent
death (predicted by Confucius15) as he loyally refused to abandon the
Kong family in Wei, saying, "I have eaten their pay, and will not flee
from their misfortunes." Attempting to save his prince, he was stabbed
to death.16
Confucius also disowned Ran Qiu as a follower of his when Qiu collected
too many taxes for the wealthy Ji family, saying, "My little ones, you
may beat the drum and set upon him. I give you leave."17 Later he may
have been allowed back into the circle of disciples; meanwhile he
achieved great success in his service of the Ji family for many years.18
Zigong, who was noted for his eloquence, became a successful diplomat "as
an aide to the Lu envoy on several missions to other states."19 Confucius
indicated that Zigong (Si) became a wealthy man in contrast to Yen Hui who
remained poor. "Hui comes very near to it. He is often empty. Si was
discontented with his lot and has taken steps to enrich himself. Yet his
judgments are often correct."20 Confucius seemed to praise him in spite
of his money-making, which he frowned upon. After studying the
ancient chronicles, the modern scholar Cho-yun Hsu concluded that Zigong
was a noted diplomat "whose international reputation stemmed not from
noble blood, for he was a commoner, but from his own competence."21 This
is a highly significant change in Chinese culture for which Confucius
was in no small way responsible. Zigong was one of those near to
Confucius' own age who managed to outlive the master. Mencius wrote that
Zigong went back to the religious sanctuary near Confucius' grave, built
a house, and mourned for another three years.22 This indicates that
Zigong was the most devoted disciple at this time.
Confucius once made the following criticisms of some of his disciples:
"Chai is stupid. Shen is dull-witted. Shi is too formal. Yu is coarse."23
Shen is the familiar name of Zeng-zi, who is often quoted in The
Analects and thus must have been influential after Confucius' death.
However, the remark by Confucius calling him "dull-witted" indicates
that he probably did not have control over the publication of The
Analects. Mencius related how he ran away when his house was going to
be attacked, ordering his steward not to allow any people to stay in his
house because they might harm the plants and trees.24 Apparently Zeng-zi
was not the humanist which Confucius was! Among his many quotes in The
Analects he often emphasized the virtue of filial piety, more than
Confucius ever did.25 He may have been one reason why this very
conservative virtue came to be so important in Confucianism, as the
Classic of Filial Piety was often attributed to him.26
Immediately after his discussion of the disciples' mourning for
Confucius, Mencius mentioned an incident when the disciples "Zixia,
Zizhang, and Ziyu thinking that Yu Ro resembled a sage, wished to render
to him the same observances which they had rendered to Confucius. They
tried to force the disciple Zeng to join with them, but he said,
'This may not be done.'"27 Yu like Zeng and Confucius was referred to as a
master in The Analects, and he was quoted four times in the first
chapter. The Tso Chuan chronicle mentions him under the year 487 as a
foot-soldier.28 Thus his education would have been his only claim to
fame, since he obviously had no social status.
Confucius cataloged the abilities of some of his major disciples this
way:
Those who worked by virtue were
Yen Hui, Min Ziqian, Ran Geng, and Ran Yong.
Those who spoke well were Zai Yu and Zigong.
Those who surpassed in handling public business
were Ran Qiu and Zilu;
in culture and learning, Ziyu and Zixia.29
Ziyu is the one we found teaching
music in Wu when Confucius criticized him jokingly. When Ziyu explained
the advantages of educating both better people and common people,
Confucius retracted the criticism.30 This could indicate that Ziyu
had a regular school similar to that of Confucius, which was very unusual
in those times. In another passage Ziyu criticized Zixia's method of
educating, implying a possible competition between their schools.
Ziyu said, "Zixia's disciples and scholars,
so long as it is only a matter of sprinkling and sweeping the
ground,
answering summonses and replying to questions,
coming forward and retiring, are all right.
But these are minor matters.
Set them to anything important,
and they would be quite at a loss."
Zixia, hearing of this, said, "Alas,
Yen Yu is wholly mistaken.
Of the Way of the better person it is said:
If it is transmitted to one before one is
ripe
By the time one is ripe, one will weary of it.
Disciples may indeed be compared to plants
and trees.
They have to be separately treated according to their kinds.
In the Way of the better person there can be no bluff.
It is only the Divine Sage who embraces in oneself
both the first step and the last."31
In another quotation in The Analects,
Zixia gave his description of an "educated person."32
Apparently there was no single recognized leader after the death of
Confucius, but rather several prominent disciples who gathered followings of
students who wished to pursue the teachings brought forward by Confucius.
Eventually someone must have gathered together from the oral traditions
the various conversations which are included in The Analects. Later other
books on such subjects as education, the mean, propriety, music, filial piety,
etc. were written to enlarge and elaborate the Confucian tradition
which continued to grow and flourish. Confucius, more than any other
person we know of, gave the impetus and basic philosophy for men of any
class to better themselves through learning. Soon Mo-zi was to develop his own
philosophy and gather disciples around him, and of course many
teachers followed the philosophy of Confucius. Xu quoted from a document
written in the third century BC which named six men who improved their
lives notably through education.
Zizhang was from a humble family of Lu;
Yen Zhuozhu was a robber in Liangfu.
Both studied with Confucius.
Duangan Mu was a market broker in Jin;
he studied with Zixia.
Gao He and Xian-zi Shi were both ruffians in Qi
and both were objects of reproach to their neighbors.
They studied with Mo-zi.
So Lu Sheh, a man of the east, was a great dissembler.
He studied with Qin Hua Li.
All of these six should have been
the victims of punishment and humiliation,
but they escaped these hardships
and even became dignitaries who enjoyed good reputations,
lived out their years, and were respected by rulers,
all because they changed their lives through education.33
It is impossible to measure the overall
influence of a man who developed a philosophy which became one of the
major religions of the world, touching the fundamental beliefs and
principles of a hundred generations of people. Because his conversations
were written down, the spirit of Confucius' teachings was passed along
from father to child and from teacher to student. The impact of these
ideals is such an intangible process that it is very difficult to
evaluate how much they influenced people's lives. Yet their endurance
through history and their dominance in Chinese culture for two dozen
centuries gives us an indication of how much they were valued and used.
What were the major innovations which Confucius introduced to Chinese culture?
Frederick Mote in his Intellectual Foundations of China summarized what
we have thus far described in detail under three chief points. First,
Confucius created the role of the professional teacher for adults.
Second, he developed not only the content of education but also its methods and
ideals. Third, he welcomed students from any social background, thus
opening the way for social mobility through education in China.34
Although he may not have magically made every person he contacted
immediately wise, there is evidence that in some way his teaching did
help some of his students to be more successful in life and to strive for
higher ideals of goodness. Not only that, but he set forth guidelines and
demonstrated by his own actions and teaching style, what kind of methods
might be employed in pursuing wisdom through education. Now that we have
presented in as much detail as possible what he did, we must analyze and
synthesize these in order to discover the methods we could use today for
the learning of wisdom. However, our purpose is to do this by
comparing Confucius as an educator to Socrates. Therefore we must next
turn to a description of Socrates before we begin our comparative
analysis.
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